In this paper I will briefly examine, from three different perspectives, the dying and death of a human being.  The three human science inquiry approaches to be discussed in this paper are the observational, phenomenological, and the hermeneutic approaches to inquiry.  The observational method is the oldest form of inquiry and is related to the watching and recording of observed events.  The phenomenological approach describes the human experience through the explication of the essential themes of the experience.  The hermeneutic technique is an interpretive approach concentrates on the historical meaning of human experiences and its developmental and cumulative effects on the individual and social levels, (Polkinghorne, 1983).

The method of discussion of each of the observational, phenomenological, and hermeneutic inquiry methodologies will be to provide a description of the method, a definition of its purpose and how it relates to the subject of dying and death, and an outline of the design, procedure, and analysis techniques for the dying and death human event.
 

Observational Research Methodology:
Description:

The observational method is the oldest form of inquiry and is related to the watching and recording of observed events.  The researcher's responsibility, in a dying and death experience, is to clearly and objectively record the human experience.  The observational research methodology can be hypothesis-generating and/or hypothesis-confirming.  Traditional methodologies direct that research question be formulated before the research is performed.  Another methodology is to develop a conceptual framework for the research into the dying and death process, in order to organize the data collection techniques.  The individual variations to this technique will be a result of the amount of involvement the researcher has with the dying and death study.  The observational method usually provides accurate quantitative data.  However, the observer/researcher may influence the situation being observed, (Gall & Borg, 1983).

There are three type of observational variables, according Gall & Borg (1983); descriptive, inferential, and evaluative.  The descriptive variable requires minimal influence of or by the researcher.  It is an accurate description of the research event.  In the case of dying and death, it may be an accurate description of the visual, auditory, tactile, or smell of death and/or dying process.  Inferential data requires the observer to make an inference from the observed activity.  Emotional reactions to dying and death can be observed but the labeling of these reactions must be inferential in nature.  Evaluative data requires that an inference be made about observed behaviors and reactions and that examples of the behavior and reaction be collected.  "Quality ratings are not behavior but rather are influences made from behavior," (Gall & Borg, 1983, p.477).

Purpose:

The purpose of the observational technique of inquiry is to enable the researcher to gather data to describe people, patterns, and relationships among people and events and to record and report these findings (Collen, 1983).  In the study of thanatology, the researcher may gather observational data regarding this life event to be used to understand the physical processes of dying, make inferences regarding emotional responses to dying and death, and to record the observable human dying process.  The information developed through the observations of the dying and death process can be helpful to individual's who are preparing to die and family and friends that are effected by the dying process.

Design, Procedures, and Analysis:

The design of the observational technique is usually set in a naturally occurring state.  The observations of the dying process and the death of the individual is a natural phenomena that must be observed naturally since it can not be recreated outside a natural occurrence.  Due to the potential influence of the researcher on the reactions to the dying process, attempts must be made to minimize the effects of that the researcher and/or the data collection techniques of the researcher, have on the dying individual.  The researcher watches and records all  events surrounding the individual's dying process and his/her death.  Audio and visual recording devices are effective in capturing the human phenomena and allowing the researcher to analyze the dying process after the death has occurred or when he/she is not actually being a participant in experiencing a portion of the dying process with the individual.

According to Gall & Borg (1983), there are four basic methods for recording observational data; duration recording, frequency-count recording, interval recording, and continuous recording.  Duration recording is done when a target behavior is observed and recorded for a set period of time.  Frequency-count is an observation of how may times specific behaviors occur during a short period of time or when the duration of an event is not important.  Interval recording involves the observation of the subject at set intervals of time to record the behaviors during those intervals.  Continuous recording is the observation of an event and continuously record all of the behaviors during the event, without a specific focus on any one behavior or response.  After the recordings have been made, a chronological report is made of the event.

The analysis of data, using the observational technique, is accomplished by using sampling tools, field notes, coding schemes, and interviewing and observation procedures.  Two common methods that data can be analyzed is by reviewing the data for quantitative statistical significance and/or from a content analysis of the event to decipher patterns among individuals, groups, or events (Collen, 1984).

Quantitative statistical data can be developed from the dying process by using; sampling tools, such as questionnaires and journals; field notes, such as written, auditorial or video recorded notes from the interviews and observations; coding schemes that track various aspects of the dying process.  The codes are used to provide quantifiable data to use to analyze various subjects/events for comparative and contrasting aspects.  Kenneth Ring (1980), in his study of near-death experiences, used a coding scheme to quantify the aspects of the near-death experiences.

A limitation to the observational method of inquiry is the effect the researcher's presence during the event and/or personal biases may have on the recording and analysis of the dying and death experience.  The effect of the observer/researcher's influence and personal biases must be taken into consideration as an aspect that might impact the validity and reliability of an analysis using the observational inquiry method.
 
 
 

Phenomenological Research Methodology:
Description:

Phenomenological research involves the researcher reviewing the subjective experiences of an individual or self, identifying stable aspects of the experience, and mapping the experience in how it is associated with the other parts of life.  In the dying & death research, the researcher may want to study the phenomenon of near-death experiences and provide a description of the experience.  This methodology attempts to describe the phenomena not to explain the event.  The phenomenological approach focuses on the structures of the experience and the organizing principles that give a form and meaning to life (Polkinghorne, 1982).  The phenomenological approach focuses beneath the surface of the experience in order to describe the event.  According to Polkinghorne (1982), the phenomenological method attempts to describe the schemata and/or themes that constitute a human experience.  Phenomenological research of the dying human can be useful in helping individual's to be conscious of, and understand dying process.  One of the first questions asked by a terminally ill individual is what will dying be like.  By understanding what to anticipate as part of the dying and death experience, the fear of the unknown can be minimized with some individuals.

According to Edmund Husserl, founder of modern phenomenology, "Existential psychology employs the phenomenological method for conducting investigations of human existence.  This method consists of describing or explicating experience in the language of experience.  The language of experience is concrete rather than abstract; its vocabulary is made up of commonplace, everyday words and not technical terms or neologisms,"  (Hall & Lindzey, 1978, p.332).

Purpose:

The purpose of phenomenological research is to permit the researcher to describe the core composite of a fundamental human experience through the explication of the essential themes (Collen, 1984).  Phenomenology's objective is to strive to understand a human phenomena, by a defined hypothesis, instead of attempting to explain the phenomena.

Phenomenology is the description of the data of immediate experience.  It seeks to understand rather than to explain phenomena.  Van Kaam (1966) defines it "as a method in psychology [that] seeks to disclose and elucidate the phenomena of behavior as they manifest themselves in the perceived immediacy" (p. 15).  Phenomenology is sometimes regarded as a method that is ancillary to every science, since a science begins by observing what is in immediate experience (Hall & Lindzey, 1978 p.312).

The phenomenological approach does not attempt to explain the phenomena but attempts to find meaningfulness in the actual experience (Barrell, Aanastoos, Richards, & Arons, 1985).  In dying and death research, the researcher may attempt to describe the subjective experience of an individual learning that he/she is going to die and provide a meaning or purpose for the subject's response.

Design, Procedures, and Analysis:

Phenomenological research should be designed to provide an accurate description of the event and then an analysis of the event in order to examine the phenomena of the various structures and modes of consciousness that have been synthesized as part of the human event (Polkinghorne, 1982). A method of design, of the phenomenological research technique, is to begin with an individual description of an experience and from the experience and description comes a more general description of the phenomenological structure.  The description is then analyzed for specific themes and the core meanings of the experience.  Working with the dying individual, specific themes and meanings can be identified by utilizing phenomenological research techniques.  The phenomenological research of Elizabeth Kubler-Ross (1969) identified five stages of dying and the meanings associated to each of the stages.

The procedures for phenomenological research consist of identifying the phenomena to research, its context, and the subject(s) to be studied.  A complete description of the event is recorded and analyzed for themes and meanings.  As an example, in the recent movie, FLATLINERS, a group of young medical students attempt to record after death conscious experiences.  Although they have available all the medical equipment to control and record the bodily responses and activities, they have no means to study and record their after death consciousness experiences.  It is through the direct reporting by the death experiment participants, that the post-biological death experiences were recorded and common themes were identified and analyzed.  As a post-experiment problem arose among the death experiencers, it was through the use of the descriptions of the near-death phenomena and an analysis of their experiences that they were able to determine a common variable between the experiences, that provided a solution to the post-biological death problems.

The phenomenological inquiry is an ongoing task of explication of an experience through clear descriptive methods.  According to Van Kaam (1966), "...experiences such as responsibility, dread, anxiety, despair, freedom, love, wonder or decision cannot be measured or experimented with...They are simply there and can only be explicated in their givenness" (p. 187).

Hermeneutic Reseach Methodology:
Description:

The hermeneutic research method is interpretative in nature.  The hermeneutic approach concentrates on the historical meaning of the experience and its developmental and cumulative effects on the individual and society (Polkinghorne, 1982).  Hermeneutics is the science of understanding and interpretation.  It is a formal systematic method to assist researchers in understanding and correctly interpreting human experience.  The word hermeneutics is derived from Greek word "hermeneuein" which means to "to interpret".

The phenomenological and the hermeneutic inquiry methodologies support each other.  The phenomenological approach focuses beneath the surface of the experience in order to describe the event.  Hermeneutics attempts to analyze and understand the overall perception of the individual human experience from different angles rather than from the specific phenomenological event.  The hermeneutic approach focuses on the linguistic and the non-linguistic actions in order to interpret the meaning of the human event.  The hermeneutic approach looks at the problematic issue of a phenomenological issue.  It begins with the basic terminology and fully interprets the meanings of the issue and then circles back to the original issue.  This called the "hermeneutic circle" (Barrell, Aanastoos, Richards, & Arons, 1985).  According Barrell (1985), Ricoer's concept of hermeneutics is that it is counseled by phenomenology and seeks the advantage of the poet's insight and creative power but is coupled with the methodological rigors of the sciences.  In near-death experience research, the hermeneutic approach would be to take the phenomenological description of the event and then to interpret the near-death experience, from an analysis of the description of the event and the historical references of the experiencer, in order to provide understanding of the event.

Purpose:

The purpose of hermeneutics inquiry is to provide a deeper understanding of a human experience.  It is to provide a contextual awareness and perspective to the event.  Hermeneutic supplements the phenomenological approach by seeking to understand human actions and expressions.  The interpretive techniques are required to make the phenomenological meanings clear.  The attitude of the dying individual can be better understood not by the description and meaning of the dying process but by the interpretations that the individual have regarding his/her's impending death.  An individual's interpretations about dying and death can be effected by his/her's experiential, social, and spiritual history.

Design, Procedures, and Analysis:

Hermeneutic research design attempts to obtain a complete understanding of a human event/phenomena by focusing on the entire event from all perspectives and expressions.  It is a multi-level, multi-dimensional understanding of the event.  It also seek to identify the differentiation of the event (Barrell, Aanastoos, Richards, & Arons, 1985).  The design of the hermeneutic research model for the investigation of dying would focus on the interpretation of the meanings that are found in the dying process.  Specific focus would be placed upon the dying person's definition of dying and death and any type of experiences that are related but different from the dying and death of an individual, such as the death of another individual, loss of a job, loss of physical capabilities, etc.  The procedures for hermeneutic research are the same as those used in phenomenological research, however, the hermeneutic method delves deeper into the subject by attempting to maintain intersubjective validity of the interpretations and the interpretative research.  Hermeneutic research usually concludes with an interpretative text of the about the human experience rather than a specific conclusion regarding the phenomena.

Hermeneutic data collection comes from various sources and/or texts.  To begin the hermeneutic review of a human experience, the researcher must make an educated guess as to the meaning of the experience and/or related text.  Possible research sources or texts about dying and death may be dying individuals, and texts with various religious, social, and psychological perceptions of thanatology.

The process of hermeneutic research analysis is continuous researching into the understanding of the human phenomena, which creates new questions, which result in new understanding, which then creates new questions.  As stated earlier, this continuous, circular process is called the hermeneutic circle.  The intuitive understanding, considered by Barrell, et al (1985) as the final step in hermeneutic inquiry analysis, can be represented as a network of overlapping circles representing related experiences and different contexts of the human phenomena.
 
 
 

Conclusion:

Thanantology can be researched using various inquiry techniques.  The use of the observational, phenomenological, and hermeneutic research techniques, to research the human experience of dying and death, can provide the researcher with a number of perspectives to examine the natural phenomena of dying.  These perspectives can provide insight into the human experience from an observational, descriptive, and an interpretive point of view.
 
 

References:
 
Barrell, J., Aanastoos, C., Richards, A. & Arons, M. (1985).  Human science research methods.  Unpublished manuscript.

Borg, W. & Gall, M. (1983).  Educational Research. (4th Ed.).  New York: Longman.

Collen, A. (1984).  Overview of Methods for Disciplined Inquiry - A Learning Guide.  Saybrook Institute, 12-15

FLATLINERS (Film), Columbia Pictures, 1989

Hall, C.S., & Lindzey, G.  (1978).  Theories of personality (3rd edition).  New York:  John Wiley & Sons.

Kubler-Ross, Elizabeth (1969).  On Death and Dying.  New York:  Macmillan Publishing Company.

Kubler-Ross, Elizabeth (1975).  Death: The Final Stage of Growth.  New Jersey:  Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Noyes, R., & Slymen, D.J.  (1978-79).  The subjective response to life-threatening danger.  Omega,  (9, pp.313-321)

Polkinghorne, D.  (1982).  What makes research humanistic?  Journal  of Humanistic Psychology, 22(2), 47-54

Ring, K.  (1980).  Life at death: A scientific investigation of the near-death experience.  New York:  Coward, McCann, & Geoghegan.

Siever, R.  (1968).  Science: Observational, experimental, historical.  Scientific American, 56(1), 70-71.